Leadership Theories

In accordance with the various definitions of leadership, there are several kinds of leadership theories. The theory of leadership in general can be classified into four broad categories, namely using the approach of (1) The influence of power, (2) Talent, (3) Behavior, and (4) Situation. But this is only part of the theory, namely from the perspective of western society, not yet from eastern society. But it never hurts. We will try to review one by one.

1) Theory with Leadership Influence
The theory put forward by French and Raven (1959) states that leadership stems from power in a group or organization. In other words, the person or persons who have access to sources of power in a particular group or organization will control or lead that group or organization. There are three kinds of sources of power, namely (1) position, (2) personality, and (3) politics.

1.1) Power originating in position
Power originating in position is subdivided into several types;
a) Formal or legal power (French & Raven, 1959)
included in this type are army commanders, service heads, presidents or prime ministers and so on who get power because they are appointed and/or strengthened by official regulations or laws.
b) Control of Resources and Rewards (French & Raven, 1959)
Employers who pay employees, employers who hire workers, tribal chiefs or office heads who can reward their subordinates, and so on, lead based on this source of power.
c) Control over the Law (French & Raven, 1959)
reward is usually associated with punishment so control over ordinary reward is also control over punishment. However, there is leadership whose source is only control over punishment, this is leadership based on fear. For example, thugs who collect taxes from traders, traders will submit to thugs for fear of getting harsh treatment.
d) Control over Information (French & Raven, 1959)
information is a positive reward for people who need it, so anyone who masters information can become a leader. For example, the person who knows best the direction of the road will automatically become the leader of the group.
e) Ecological (environmental)
control of this power source is also called situational engineering. An example is control over job placement (Oldham, 1975). A boss, manager, or head of personality has power over his subordinates, because he can determine the position of his members. 

 
1.2) Power that comes from personality
Different from power leadership, power that originates in personality originates from personal traits, namely as follows;
a) Expertise or Skill (French & Raven, 1959)
In Islam, the person who becomes the imam is the one who is most fluent in reading the verses of the Qur'an. Likewise in an airplane or a ship, the person who is most skilled at driving will be the leader.
b) Friendship or Loyalty (French & Raven, 1959)
The nature of being sociable, loyal to friends or loyal to a group can be a source of power, so that a person is considered a leader.
c) Charisma (House, 1977)
Personality traits that lead to the emergence of personal authority from leaders are also a source of power in the leadership process. This matter is discussed separately in the theory of talent. 

 
1.3) Power Based on Politics
Power that comes from politics consists of several types (Pfeffer, 1981)
a) Control over the Decision Making Process (Pfeffer & Salanick, 1974)
in the organization, the chairman determines whether a decision will be made and implemented or not. Etc.
b) Coalition (Stevenson, Perace & Porter, 1985)
leadership based on the source of political power is determined also on the right or authority to make cooperation with other groups.
c) Participation (Pfeffer, 1981)
the leader regulates the participation of its members, who may participate, in what form each member participates, and so on.
d) Institutionalization
Religious leaders marry husband and wife, determine the formation of a new family. A notary or judge determines the establishment of a new foundation or company. Etc.

2) Talent Theory
Talent theory is also known as trait theory, charismatic theory or transformation theory. The essence of this theory is that leadership occurs because of the distinctive traits or talents contained in the leader that can be manifested in leadership behavior. This trait or talent is called charisma or authority. Examples are Bung Karno, Adolf Hitler, Fidel Castro, Mahatma Gandhi, Mother Theresa and Martin Luther King. These characters have traits that other leaders do not have.
On the other hand, charismatic leaders cannot be equated with figures whose authority, power or leadership is sourced or supported by legends, myths, and fairy tales. For example, descendants of kings, nobles, holy people, descendants who are considered incarnations of gods and so on.
The charisma that is supported by these myths and legends does not come from the talent or personal trait in question, so it cannot be classified in the theory of talent that we are talking about.
The theory of talent according to Hourse (1977) that charisma in the form of talent or nature is something that can be explained objectively scientifically, so that it can be researched, measured, and proven its existence.
The theory of talent according to Baas (1985) there are other additional factors that cause the birth of charismatic leadership in addition to the innate factors proposed by Hourse, namely antecedent factors (things that precede the occurrence of a leader), attribution factors (own beliefs) and consequences of factors. leadership.
The theory of talent according to Conger and Kanungo (1987) that charismatic leadership is primarily attributive, namely because of certain characteristics of leaders perceived by followers based on follower observations of leader behavior.
Transformational theory according to Robert (1984) that charismatic leaders can also occur in highly organized groups. It is different from the previous opinion which seems to state that charismatic leadership cannot work in highly organized groups.
Charisma: Negative or Positive?
Ykul (1989) argues that history has recorded charismatic leaders who have had a tremendous positive impact on their groups, even on humanity as a whole, such as Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King. On the other hand, history also records charismatic leaders who have had a negative and destructive impact, such as Adolf Hitler. The question that arises is "Does charismatic leaders have a positive or negative impact on their followers?". This question increasingly needs to be answered because many charismatic leaders are difficult to classify in any of these types. There is even a negative effect on the one hand but positive on the other.
Musser (1987) proposed different criteria between positive and negative charismatic leaders. Characteristics of negative charismatic leaders are those who are more concerned with their own goals than their ideologies.

3) Behavioral Theory Behavioral
theory focuses on leader behavior in relation to group structure and organization. Therefore, this behavioral theory is more suitable for leadership in an organizational or corporate environment, because the role of the leader is clearly defined. Behavioral theory according to several experts, among others;
Mintzberg (1973) suggests ten roles of leaders (managers) as follows; The role in interpersonal relationships is as a leader, liaison and role model (figurehead). Roles related to information processing are as monitor, information dissemination and spokesperson. Roles related to decision making are as entrepreneur, problem solving, resource allocation, and negotiator.
How a leader fulfills the ten roles, it will be determined how his leadership. They will fit into either role, and they will usually excel at it.
Page (Page, 1985 & Tornow, 1987) also focused his leadership theory on the role that leaders play in managerial positions. According to him there are nine obligations and responsibilities of managers in the organization. Namely supervisor (supervising), planners and organizers, decision makers, monitoring indicators, controlling, representation, coordinating, consulting, and administration.
As a manager, of course, someone who can occupy these nine roles. However, everyone has their own abilities, so some are strong in certain roles and weak in others.

4) Situational Theory
In this case, there are two kinds of relationships, namely (1) leader behavior which is the result or result of the situation and (2) leader behavior is the determinant or cause of the situation. In other words, in the first relationship, the leader is a dependent variable, while the second is included in the independent variable. 

 
4.1) Leader Behavior as a Result of Situation
The theories that talk about this are;
a) Role theory (role theory) from Merton (1957)
The leader's behavior is adjusted to his role in the group, for example the role of a commander is different from that of a father, so the behavior of a leader is different when he is in the role of a commander and when he is a father.
b) Expectancy theory (expectancy theory) from Nebecker & Mitchell (1974)
leader behavior is determined by the expectations of the group, for example a father is expected to earn a living for his family, while other fathers are expected to provide education for their children.
c) Adaptive-Reactive theory (adaptive-reactive theory) from Osborne & Hunt (1975)
leader behavior is not determined by one particular factor, but by the interaction between several factors in a situation (multiple influence model). In other words, the leader adapts his behavior every time to changing situations. For example, the behavior of commanders is different in times of war and in times of peace.
d) Constraints choices model from Stewan (1967, 1976, 1982)
the leader's behavior is adjusted to the existing constraints. It will choose the behavior with the smallest constraint. For example, a military commander in a combat situation, if taking an action the chances of casualties are few and victory will be achieved then the commander will carry out that thing, but on the other hand, it is better to wait until the situation is favorable. 

 
4.2) Leader Behavior as the Cause of the Situation
In this theory the leader is seen as a party who reacts to the situation solely, but is seen as a more active party, who takes the initiative, and who has an impact on the situation. This theory is also known as the contingency model theory. Some experts argue;
Hourse & Mitchell (1974) suggested four types of leader behavior, namely; supportive (support), detective (give directions), participatory (involved), and achievement orientation (best achievement goals).
Hersey & Blanchard (1969, 1977, 1982) suggested two types of leader behavior, namely; more concerned with the task (task behavior) and more concerned with the relationship (relationship behavior)
Kerr & Jernier (1978) stated, there are two kinds of situation variables, namely (1) that support the effectiveness of leadership (substitutes) and (2) hinder the effectiveness of
Leadership. Facing these two situations has a different leadership attitude. In this case there are two types of leaders, namely; instrumental (starting, stimulating) and supportive (continuing, sustaining).
Vroom & Yettom (1973) based on how the leader's decision-making behavior affects the quality of subordinates' decision-making and subordinates' acceptance of decisions. There are three decision-making procedures, namely; autocratic (self-making), consultation (first consultation), and joint decisions.
Fiedler (1964, 1967) and Sarwono (1995)
Leadership effectiveness depends on the leader's perception of his group members. The leader's perception of his members is measured based on his view of the member who is weakest, least accomplished or least liked (LPC/last preferred co-worked) 

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Oleh : Muhammad Muttaqin
Sumber : Sarlito Wirawan Sarwono, Psikologi Sosial, 2005, Jakarta, Balai Pustaka.